The “History of Rome” written by Livy is one of the most prolific sources of early Roman history and mythology. Livy was born in 59 B.C. and passed away in about 14 A.D. Although his perspective was pro-Republic, Livy wrote the work around the time of Emperor Augustus when the Republic was dying. Livy was not anti-Augustus and was not advocating for the restoration of the Republic, but rather was making a throwback to the beginnings of Rome. 

Acknowledging the weakness of historical writing, Livy said his book was more like the work of poets. Continuing, he explained that historians mix human actions with the divine to defend the dignity of the origin of stories and advised to choose stories that make sense and avoid evil, adding that wealth leads to moral degradation over time and corrupts societies. Livy ignored the poets’ practice of prayers to the gods, insisting that Man or gods did not decide the origin of Rome, but that Fates decided destiny.

Driven by ambition, Romulus and Remus fought, causing the murder of Remus, through these actions Rome was founded. Romulus established a new legal order by inventing it with authority: himself and 12 lictors. He also created a new class of leaders: 100 senators, and told the people that they were the children of the soil. Planning the kidnapping of the young women in the region in order to populate Rome, Romulus conquered the parents and brothers who resisted and offered a sacrifice of the spoils to Jupiter, who had the first temple in Rome. Livy announced two deities as Rome’s defenders, ancient King Evander and Heracles who had covenanted together. 

Ovid (43 B.C. to 18 A.D.) was a professional poet best known for “Metamorphoses” which consists of 15 books and 250 myths. Written in 8 A.D., it was an epic poem that extends from the creation of the world to the murder/deification of Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. A highly influential poem in the Middle ages, the book asserts that Chaos was the original source of everything. Gods or nature ended this strife and the outcome was peace. The creation was in stages; man was forged last, and the Creator was an unknown god. The strongest god, Jupiter, feared using thunderbolts against mankind because of “the day of fire when all perishes” so he used water to flood the earth instead. Nothing was spared except for Deucalion and Pyrra, who were protected due to their righteousness. They had no hope and sought counsel from a goddess, who told them to toss stones, which turned into humans.

During the early centuries of the Church, various heresies arose that sought to change the Church’s theology and convert others to the heretics’ own beliefs. A prominent heresy called Donatism was started in the 3rd century. By that time many of the large-scale Roman persecutions had ended, but during some of the earlier tyranny, some Christains had temporarily denied their faith to be spared. Donatism taught that these people could never be readmitted to the Church. 

Although Donatism became a fairly influential heresy, it was nothing compared to Arianism, which at its height had almost as many followers as true Christianity. Arianism was most popular in the 4th century AD, and its doctrine taught that Christ was not equal to the Father and not of the same essence, the Father allows Christ certain divine attributes, and Christ is the agent of creation, but Christ himself is still a creature. Arians were still devoted to Christ, while saying that Christ is not God of His very essence, but that Christ grew to divinity through His own efforts. True Christian doctrine states that Christ is both fully God and fully man, and there is an equal trinity in one God. 

At the Council of Nicea (325), also known as the First Ecumenical Council, Arianism was declared a heresy, but still continued for years after this. Another extremely important event at the Council of Nicea was the establishment of the Nicene Creed, which is basically the Christian confession of faith. In 381 the First Council of Constantinople dealt further with Arianism, added to the Creed, and discussed the Holy Spirit. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 stated that Christ was “two natures, one person.”

Monasticism became a common practice in the early centuries of the Church and is still practiced in modern times. Two different forms of monasticism arose: Eremitic and Cenobitic. Eremitic is a life of absolute isolation as a hermit and Cenobitic is a life in a monastery with other monastics. Eventually most monastics became Cenobitic, and today there are few to little Eremitic monastics. Eremitic monasticism was much more common in the east of the empire while cenobitic was practiced in the west of the empire. Eremitic monasticism often involved penitential regiments, which is the action of discomfort or depriving oneself of food or water for long periods of time. This is also known as “dry martyrdom” because while one doesn’t actually die, they give themselves completely over to God. The practice of monasticism was widely used even after the fall of the Roman Empire and by the 14th century there were 37,000 monasteries. 

Catiline left the city of Rome when he was called out by Cicero, who wanted to justify Catiline’s departure as a conspiracy by identifying members as ethical rebels and economic failures. Giving himself full credit for his work, Cicero stated that the Republic’s survival was at risk and blamed internal enemies like Catiline, adding that Catiline would soon lead an army against Rome. 

Cicero addressed the Senate by alleging that Catiline led an army of scoundrels and wastrels, the conspiracy is made up of losers, and they are all threats to the republic. Arrogantly stating that the gods worked through him, Cicero proclaimed that Catiline would be defeated when he led an army on Rome. However, there were still supporters of Catiline inside the city that needed to be taken care of, persuaded Cicero. 

People who were in debt, immoral, and weak warriors made up Catiline’s army. Cicero urged power to be handed over to him by the Senate because the gods favored Catiline’s defeat. Although the Senate had not yet decided what to do with the conspirators of Catiline, Cicero wanted them to be executed without trial. Knowing that there would be grumblings from the people if the trial did not take place, Cicero spoke to the people in order to identify himself with Jupiter and the Republic. He also reminded them that the Senate had previously honored him, asking only for his good reputation in their minds. 

Announcing to the people the capture of the conspirators, the Senate had given Cicero great honor and he wished only to be remembered for this. In so doing, the Senate had saved the nation, Cicero announced. Because he knew there would be murmurings after the executions, Cicero made several orations in which he explained himself to the people in order to cut short future criticism. Instead of directly calling for their execution, Cicero invoked the gods, citizens, and even slaves, saying all would agree that the conspiracy was totally evil. 

In his first oration, Cicero persuaded Catiline to leave and brought no formal accusation against him, but demonized him. “He has gone, he has departed, he has disappointed, he has rushed out, he is prostrate, stricken, looking back, mourns, vomited out, his followers; dregs of the Republic,” reads the second oration. Cicero used rhetoric, but also five principles which were: Sovereignty: the gods of Rome; Authority: he was the consul who saved Rome; Law: the law of the Senate; Sanctions: death to representative figures of the conspiracy; Succession: the Roman Republic is eternal. In the end, the execution of five men frightened Catiline’s supporters, who fled. Cicero would eventually be murdered by Mark Antony in 42 B.C.