A common misconception about the Crusades is that they were completely unprovoked. This is far from the truth, as the Muslims had already taken two-thirds of the Christian world before the start of the First Crusade. These invaded lands included Asia Minor, the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. Another false fact about the Crusades is that they were committed purely for monetary gain. Actually, starting a Crusade was extremely expensive, forcing most warriors who joined to sell land in order to pay for their campaigns. 

The First Crusade was fought from 1069-1099 and was started when Pope Urban II put out a call to Crusade and reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control. With the large numbers of Christians that joined the movement, there were two waves: the Peasants’ Crusade and the professional knights. Led by Peter the Hermit, many poor peasants believers joined and advanced through the Balkans to Constantinople but were destroyed after not receiving adequate provisions. 

Although the second wave consisted of professional knights who were skilled, they failed to formulate a detailed strategy and supply lines. Despite this, they did manage to conquer Nicea in 1097 as well as strategic positions in Asia Minor. 

During the winter of 1097-1098 widespread desertion and disease occurred in both Christian and Muslim armies. Continuing on, Crusaders arrived in Antioch but were trapped inside the walled city. Miraculously, after months of being besieged inside the city, they dug up the Holy Spear and defeated the Muslim forces in a pitched battle. In the end, the First Crusade was mostly a victory for the Christians, with Jerusalem and vast swaths of the Holy Land being retaken, and with the establishment of the four Crusader States of Antioch, Edessa, Tripoli, and Jerusalem. While the First Crusade was a victory, there were many instances of disorganization in their armies, as well as the massacring of the inhabitants of Jerusalem. Sadly, these acts would happen on a larger scale during later Crusades. 

The Second Crusade (1147-1149) was carried out to retake the Crusader State of Edessa. It ended in complete disaster, as the Christian forces were defeated in Damascus before reaching Edessa. In the mid-12th century, Muslim leader Saladin had great success in unifying a vast territory around Palestine and recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. King Frederick Barbarrosa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I Lionheart of England came together to once again reclaim the Holy Land in 1189. 

However Byzantine Emperor Isaac II was suspicious of Frederick Barbarossa and ended up negotiating with Saladin to halt Frederick’s progress. Barbarossa was killed in action in Armenia, causing the German army to fall apart with him. Despite this, the Third Crusade contained some victories for the Christians, who were led by Richard Lionheart and Philip Augustus who conquered Cyprus, Tyre, and Jaffa, but still failed to retake Jerusalem. 

Living from 100-165, Justin Martyr was an early Christian philosopher who is most famous for writing the First Apology in 155. He is referred to as Justin “Martyr” because he was executed under Emperor Marcus Aurelius for defying the Roman government. 

His book First Apology was not an actual apology, as in an explanation freeing one from fault or blame, rather it was meant as an intellectual defense addressed to the Emperor and his sons and was also designed to persuade them to stop the persecution of the Christian faith. By using rhetoric to defend his theology, Justin’s message was that: Christians are morally superior and more rational than pagans and God can impose greater negative sanctions on pagans, than pagans can to Christians. 

Demanding justice, Justin stated that Christians are not afraid of being executed. Instead, Justin wanted the Emperor to “judge us by our deeds” and act with reason rather than utilize pagan customs. He also warned the Emperor that when a Christian is condemned, he loses nothing because he will go to heaven after death, so by condemning a Christian to death, you will receive eternal punishment. Telling him that he should fear hell, Justin was not scared of the Emperor, and even presented a list of why pagans are morally inferior to Christians: We do not worship animals, kill unwanted infants, nor do we take advantage of abandoned children. 

Justin cited Old Testament passages about the judgement of Israel by Christ and Christ as the judge of nations, adding that the Romans would pay for these actions if they failed to repent. Christ will judge all men, even emperors, even though the Romans regarded them as gods. The prophets also foretold the destruction of Jerusalem. Justin explained that the ancient Greek poets like Plato, who the Romans regarded as great men, copied Moses’ writing and were misled by demons. Plato even copied Moses’ account of Creation. Exposing the demonic influence in Rome, Justin even taught that Roman rituals like washings are an inversion of baptism, as baptism is a form of illumination unlike the Roman rituals. Justin challenged the Emperor to rule justly and warned of God’s sovereignty, saying that although he ruled the world, there is always a Higher Law: God’s. The Kingdom of God is not human and it cannot be replaced. Not being a plea for mercy, Justin’s apology was a demand for justice and a public call to resistance by Christians. Justin’s aim was to persuade the Christians to obey the law and not submit to idolatry, while also confessing Christ publicly.

From early in the history of Christendom, there were five major cities known as “Patriarchates.” Each of these cities had bishops known as “Patriarchs,” who were the five most influential bishops. The five cities were Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. 

The “Great Schism” was the split in the Church between the East (centered in Constantinople) and the West (centered in Rome). This occurred in 1054 because of multiple factors including the East not recognizing the Pope’s authority. There were many differences between the East and West like separate liturgies and language barriers. In the 300s the balance of power shifted towards Constantinople instead of Rome, with Constantinople even being dubbed “New Rome.” In 381 the seat of authority in Constantinople was declared to have “primacy of honor” after Rome, despite Rome not accepting these decrees. 

Anti-Latin sentiment began to spread in the East after the Patriarch of Constantinople Ignatius was deposed for forbidding a man’s communion. A layman named Photius was appointed in only six days, and the Pope sided with Ignatius saying he was unjustly deposed. In 867 Photius declared the Pope excommunicated and guilty of heresy. All Latin churches were closed in Constantinople in 1053 with the East and West splitting officially in 1054. 

Emerging as a new dynasty in France, the Capetians began to gain power in 987. Hugh Capet was the first of the Capetians kings. Despite being King of France, he was weak and held the title in name only, being elected the great lords of the realm. The Capetians had three main goals: acquire full control over the area around Paris, bring additional French territory under their control, and exercise control over the lords of large principalities. Surprisingly, the Capetians managed to accomplish all of this by using strategic marriage policies and grabbing fiefs of deceased vassals who lacked heirs. Vassals who were unfaithful to feudal obligations to the king were dispossessed. Two strong Capetians kings who ruled in the twelfth century were Philip I (1060-1108) and Louis the Fat (1108-1137) started this process. Under another Capetian, Philip II Augustus, France became the dominant power in Europe, highly centralized, and developed a sophisticated administrative system.