The founder of Islam, Muhammad, lived from 571-632. Beginning in his 30s, Muhammad claimed to have mystical experiences. 

From what is now Saudi Arabia, Muhammad was a middle-class citizen. Saying he received a message from the angel Gabriel, Muhammad was instructed to find followers of Allah. Instead of believing in a polytheistic religion, Muhammad preached one god but found few converts in his native Mecca. Islam is not trinitarian, but emphasizes the oneness of god. 

Muhammad quickly received opposition from the ruling elites of Mecca, because he claimed that the religious shrine in Mecca called the “Kaaba” was only to be worshiped by followers of Islam. Muhammad also stated that no other idols should be placed there. After fleeing to the neighboring city of Medina, Muhammad had great success there and was welcomed as a political and religious leader to a city torn by divisions. 

Shortly after becoming a leader in Medina, Muhammad led the city in an attack against Mecca, raiding their trading caravans and blockading their city. Eventually, Mecca submitted in 630. By the time of Muhammad’s death, Arabia was united under Islam as a political entity for the first time. Over the next hundred years, Islamic conquests continued from India, Central Asia, Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Spain. These gains were slowed when the Islamic forces were defeated by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. Before these invasions, most of the Middle East consisted of Christian lands like Syria, Palestine, and North Africa. 

In Islam, Muhammad is not believed to be divine but a prophet similar to Abraham or Moses. The Koran is alleged to be the holy book that was dedicated to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel from Allah. In Islamic law, there is no separation of Church and State. 

The Pillars of Islam are equivalent to the Ten Commandments and say this: There is no god but Allah, pray five times a day, fast during the month of Ramadan, give alms of 2.5% of your income, and make a pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca during your lifetime. 

The Pharisees and Scribes in Jerusalem disliked Jesus because Jesus opposed their Old Law and sought to bring the New Covenant. Criticizing the disciples for not washing their hands, the Pharisees defended doing this by invoking the tradition of the elders. 

Departing from Galilee, Jesus expanded his preaching to Tyre, Sidon, and Phoenicia. Despite being a Gentile, a Sidonian woman’s daughter was healed because of her faith. This showed that Jesus came for all people, not only Israelites. Additionally, 4,000 people were fed in these lands. Jesus instructed to honor your parents before the temple and warned of the doctrine of the Pharisees. Predicting his own death, Jesus would voluntarily give Himself up to be crucified. Simon became the “Rock of the Church” and was renamed Peter. 

The conflict between Jesus and the Pharisees was tradition vs. ethics. In order to show the disciples that Jesus was the Son of God, Jesus performed the Transfiguration. Jesus taught his disciples the principles of service: it is better to be physically maimed than ethically rebellious. Legal under New Testament law, Jesus taught that divorce and remarriage were considered adultery. Unlike the thinking of the time, wealth was a barrier to enter into God’s kingdom but in Christianity, poverty for Jesus’ sake will bring riches in heaven. 

The Chief Priests and Pharisees became angrier at Jesus for his actions and were enraged after Jesus drove out the moneychangers from the temple. They challenged Jesus asking Him by what authority he does these things Jesus then answered by questioning what authority John the Baptist had, knowing they were scared to discredit John because of his popularity among the people. Attempting to trap Jesus, the Pharisees asked if it was lawful to pay taxes to Caesar, Jesus responded by saying, “give unto Caesar what is Caesars.” 

Thinking of Jesus as a political leader and savior of the Jewish people from Roman occupation, the people in Jerusalem welcomed Him triumphantly. Jesus was sent to earth to bring the New Covenant and suffer for the sins of all peoples. Prophesying regarding the temple Jesus foretold that not one stone would be left when it was destroyed, this was fulfilled in 70 AD when Jerusalem was sacked. Since this would happen in the lifetime of some of the listeners, Jesus told them to leave the city before it was surrounded. 

Jesus knew He was to be betrayed at the Passover, when He turned wine and bread into His body and blood for the remission of sins. Jesus was delivered to Roman Governor Pontius Pilate for His trial, where Jesus confirmed that He was the son of God to Pilate. Despite not wanting to convict an innocent man, Pilate would free Barabbas instead of Jesus due to the uproar of the chief priests and their subversives in the crowd. Being scourged and then crucified, Jesus fulfilled his own prophecies and others before (like Ezekiel and Isaiah) when He resurrected on the third day.

Out of the three “Renaissances” in history, the Carolingian Renaissance was the earliest and least known. The other two rebirth periods were the 12th century Renaissance and the 15th century which is commonly referred to just as “The Renaissance.” 

Lasting from the reign of Charlemagne to the end of his son Louis the Pious’ rule, this forgotten era stretched from 768-840. Renaissance means “rebirth,” so in the Carolingian Renaissance there was a renewed interest in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Unlike in the next two more famous renaissances, the Carolingian entailed the least original work and involved more copying of ancient works. The Carolingians’ aim was to restore a civilization of which Rome would have been proud, but also emphasizing Christianity. 

Before the time of Charlemagne, the Franks had no set capital. Aachen, a city in modern-day Germany, was chosen to be the first capital of the Kingdom of the Franks under Charlemagne. Seeking out well-known artists, builders, and writers in every city he visited, Charlemagne strived to make a society that was not only strong militarily but one that was also the pinnacle of modern Western civilization. Charlemagne improved the lives of his people by establishing a cathedral and monastery in every city where the clergy and laity were educated and taught them how to read and write. 

Almost single-handedly converting Ireland to Christianity, St. Patrick was the only person to do this without using violence. St. Patrick was born in the 4th century in Britain but was taken to Ireland as a slave, then escaped and went to Gaul. Despite being a slave while he was in Ireland, St. Patrick wished to move the Irish people to Christianity. At that point in time, Ireland had never been part of the Roman Empire or had any missionaries visit there. After the monumental change of the Irish people from paganism to Christianity, it became known as the “Isle of Saints” because of its vast number of new converts and monasteries. Unlike monasteries in continental Europe, Irish ones employed harsh asceticism and penitential regiments and were also the chief organizing centers of the Church in Ireland. Many Irish like St. Columbus became the main missionaries who would later go to England and Germany.