Augustine was probably the most influential writer of his time, with his writings remaining relevant for hundreds of years, until at least the 1000s. His two most famous works: “The Confessions” and “The City of God” shaped Western thought and theology for generations. 

Written from 413-426, “The City of God” was Augustine’s response to the Visigoths’ sacking of Rome in 410. Rome had been called the “Eternal City,” although it became clear that this was not the case. The city’s annihilation in 410 was its first defeat in 800 years. Subsequently, the pagan Romans blamed the Christian’s for the city’s defeat. However, Augustine refuted this by saying it was due to the debauchery of Roman morals and identified Rome as a worldly model or ideal example for the “City of Man,” which is contrasted with the “City of God”: which was a spiritual and eternal institution, not of this world. 

Augustine also used the book to give advice to the Roman Christians, who were scattered by the barbarian invasions. Advising those who were captured by barbarians and he urged them to practice their faith the same way they would normally. For instance, Augustine thought that if you were a woman violated by barbarians, it was not a sin or a cause of shame. 

The main difference between the City of God and the City of Man is that the latter is not divinely everlasting, unlike what others had been saying Rome was. There was nothing unique about the sacking of Rome; this had happened many times in history with great empires coming and going. Although Augustine comforted Christians during the invasions, he also explicitly stated that suicide should not be used as an escape because it is counted the same as murder, citing Judas as an example. During the sacking some pagans had asked “Where is the Christian God?” In response, Augustine said “Where were your gods?” adding that Rome was not saved by God due to its outright and unapologetic immorality, and that any powerful kingdom or empire becomes strong due to bloodshed, invasion and theft. 

Augustine urged people to pursue tranquility instead, saying that the City of God is not found on earth, since it is not an institution. God is sovereign over all kingdoms, including the most formindable and powerful earthly empires. Man was not created in the City of Man, Augustine implied that Adam and Eve were instead members of the City of God. Moreover, the City of Man was not created by God but by Man when Adam and Eve committed the first sin. Now, when Man is born, they become members of the City of Man, and can only become members of the City of God after death. One can strive to be like Christ on earth, but can never actually part of the City of God until they enter heaven. Clearing the notion that God predestined Man to sin, Augustine said that God allowed the devil to rebel, but did not predestine his rebellion or Man’s, who had free will. The City of Man has self-love, but the City of God has love of God.

Developed in England starting in the 12th Century, Common Law is the idea that the “law of the land” would be gradually established during the course of various court decisions that build upon previous court decisions. Over time, this resulted in a stable body of governance. Common Law in addition to judicial precedent, was derived from numerous sources including Anglo-Saxon customs, canon law, Norman law, and merchant law, drawing from all these different aspects and standardized them.

Some of the main principles of English Common Law are: jury trials, presumption of innocence, accused’s rights of access to evidence, and abolishment of torture to gain evidence. Under kings Henry I (1100-1135) and Henry II (1154-1189), English law became more and more systematic, but there was still a central problem: in many instances, the king did not have to abide by the law or pay taxes. 

Under the reign of John I (1199-1216), John debased currency and unjustly taxed noblemen and vassals. John also was involved in a feud with Pope Innocent III, who excommunicated the King after he stole church property. Realizing that he had too many enemies, John was forced to consent to the Magna Carta after being confronted by English noblemen and aristocrats. Signed in 1215, the Magna Carta was a monumental document which limited the king’s power, saying: the King is under the law like everyone else, no tax shall be imposed on the people unless agreed to by a council, and no one can be imprisoned without trial. 

After John I, the growth of Parliament began in England during the reigns of Henry III and Edward I (1216-1307). Convened in 1254, the “Great Council” of two barons from each county, churchmen, and representatives of towns met to discuss and monitor what the king was doing. In 1295, the first complete Parliament was established and prolaimed “what touches all, should be approved by all,” meaning everyone has a say in the taxes being imposed. 

Philip IV “The Fair” (1285-1314) of France was similar to John I of England in that he had an elevated view of the powers of monarchs and his issues with the Church and the Pope. Inspired by Roman Law, he believed that the monarch was meant to be as powerful as possible. Starting in 1302 a representative assembly like the English parliament was created in France called the “Estates General.” However, it was different from the parliament, as it was much weaker, had much less say in the matters of the king, and convened less frequently. After Philip, serfdom was in decline, industry grew in cities, and many people moved from agriculture to the cities.

During the reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, there was an intense persecution of Christians. One of the martyred was Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, who was an aged man when he was executed in 155 A.D. The Martyrdom of Polycarp was a written account of his death.

Marcus Aurelius was a stoic philosopher and was angered when Polycarp refused to offer sacrifice to him. The account of Polycarp’s steadfast faith was meant to inspire listeners, showing Polycarp as a model of the Christian martyr. At that time, Roman authorities regarded Christians as atheists, but Polycarp dismissed the crowds during his execution as atheists. 

Regarded as the perfect martyr by his Christians contemporaries at the time, Polycarp publicly prayed during his death and was burned in fire which did not harm him. He was finnaly killed by stabbing and called himself “a burnt offering.” 

Another famous account of martyrdom was Perpetua, who rejected her father’s plea to recant her Christian faith. She was then imprisoned for three days, during which she experienced visions that are described in her account. Eventually, Perpetua was executed along with four others in Carthage. 

Composed around 400, Augustine’s “Confessions” was the first autobiography written in the West. Directed at God, Augustine wanted readers to hear his string of sins. Also written for the composition to serve as a guide to understanding the nature of confessions. 

Augustine was converted to Christianity around 387 and was a master of rhetoric, before his conversion he had been a Manichean, which was the philosophic view that everything in the world is either good and evil. In his autobiography, Augustine described his conversion and psychological struggles in making the transition from Manicheanism to Christianity, citing that when he was a Manichean, he wished to have strong faith like his Christian mother, but couldn’t quite bring himself to convert. Initially, his autobiography was written to be read by Church clergy and scholars, not the general public. Nevertheless, Augustine became the most important thinker in the Western World until at least 1000 A.D.