An extremely influential and famous man in ancient Rome, Cicero was known as a master of rhetoric and logic, a great public speaker, and a member of the Roman Senate. Cicero wrote extensively on his use of rhetoric, stating that there is no systematic structure or coherence in rhetoric. A book does not make you a good speaker, explained Cicero. Rhetoric must be learned on the job. 

One of the most notable instances of Cicero using his skills of rhetoric and public speaking was his condemnation of Catiline, who had organized a conspiracy against Cicero after both of them ran for consul and Cicero won. Furiously, Catiline led an army outside of Rome attempting to take control. Cicero addressed the Senate and hinted that the recent death of Catiline’s wife was done at the hands of Catiline. Cicero also amplified his financial difficulties and public vices, which invoked the public’s welfare. The speech’s goal was to isolate Catiline, scare him into leaving, persuade the Senate to cut ties with him, avoid taking legal action, and warn Catiline’s supporters that their leader was almost out of money. Cicero’s great skills of persuasion and slander of his opponents were put on display here. By presenting himself as a victim, showing that he was restrained, invoking the Republic’s tradition of execution, and suggesting nefarious schemes, Cicero masterfully used rhetoric to shutout and condemn Catiline. Cicero continued to ridicule Catiline as someone who should be pitied, and undermined Catiline’s supposed subordination to honorable men. In fact, Cicero warned Catiline that he would lose, and called down Jupiter’s wrath saying that banishment will destroy Catiline and his supporters. Cicero never actually brought any formal charges against Catiline and never officially brought action, instead used rhetoric to slander Catiline into ending the revolt, as well as turned Cataline’s own supporters against him. 

Cicero had multiple goals that he achieved: winning over the Senate; persuading Catiline to leave Rome; not gaining the reputation of tyranny; eliminating a threat to the Republic; using multiple rhetorical techniques to make serious-sounding accusations; not bringing formal charges and not starting a trial; presenting himself as restrained and as a victim; invoking gods, the Republic, and tradition; using the Senate’s silence as condemnation; pointing out that Catiline sat alone; embarrassing the Senate for tolerating Catiline; and speaking for the welfare of Rome. Cicero shaped Western rhetoric by not setting forth a coherent system for it, but by using his power of language and tactics as a model of public verbal confrontation. 

Leading up to the time of Christ’s birth, there was a general search for the true faith, with many people ridiculing the traditional pagan religions. Various new religions came to replace the traditional Greek and Roman ones, and there was an ongoing interest in moral philosophy. The teachings of Socrates and Plato and Stoicism still persisted for centuries until the time of Christ, as well as different versions of older philosophies like Neo-Pythagoreanism. 

Meanwhile, the Jewish people were looking for their messiah, who was prophesied hundreds of years earlier. The Jews had strict laws about their religion, and scribes were experts on the law and were extremely influential at the time of Christ. The scribes had developed out of the Babylonian captivity and had been powerful ever since then. The Hebrews also had something known as the Sanhedrin, which was a particular group of priests, scribes, and pious Jews numbering about 6,000 during Christ’s lifetime. They paid strict fidelity to ritual observance and laws. When Jesus started his ministry, there were followers of Him called “Zealots” who sought violent revolution against Rome, but were angered at Jesus after they found out that Christ’s kingdom was not a political one. 

Jesus started his public teachings at age 30 and had twelve close disciples following Him. He delivered many public sermons and healings, with one of the most famous of these being the 

Sermon on the Mount (The Beatitudes). Because He proclaimed Himself the Son of God, Jesus was greatly opposed by the enraged chief priests and Pharisees. Eventually, He was betrayed by Judas Iscariot, one of the Twelve Apostles, and delivered to Roman governor Pontius Pilate to be punished. Pilate found no fault in Him, but nevertheless ordered Christ to be crucified for fear of a revolt if Pilate did not go through with their demands. After His crucifixion, Jesus miraculously rose from the dead on the third day. 

The Christian faith was established, and was met with immediate persecution by the Jews and Romans. Jesus’ disciples and Apostles preached His message across the Mediterranean and the Roman Empire. Four Gospels were composed telling of Jesus’ life and ministry and a number of other books were written that make up the “New Testament.” Christianity first rose among the Jews, with entrance into the faith by baptism. Later it reached all peoples of the world, including non-Jews known as Gentiles. Despite the fierce resistance, Christianity spread widely, with the teaching that those who repent and serve God are promised eternal life. 

The Oresteia Trilogy” is the three plays of “Agamemnon,” “The Libation Bearers,” and “The Eumenides,” all written by Greek playwright Aeschylus. In these works, and in most of ancient Greek literature, the same basic theme prevails: the concept and ethics of revenge. 

“The Eumenides” was the third and final play of the trilogy. Eumenides were monstrous beings from the underworld, and it was explained in this poem that Greeks referred to them as “eumenides” while Romans referred to them as “furies” as they were described in previous plays. Greatly feared by the population, the furies were described as “goddesses of hate” by Apollo. The Olympian gods had long-standing animosity with the gods of the underworld. Oretes was lured outside the city of Athens, which was safe and was caught by the furies. The furies claimed Orestes was without hope and would be taken to the underworld for justice. Thankfully for him, Orestes was being protected by Apollo. The goddess Athena assembled a court in the underworld for Orestes’ trial, but she stated that she could not save Orestes. Going on she proclaimed that without the furies, there would be murder in families because of the lack of retribution handed down by the furies. 

Eventually, the furies consented to the trial but quarreled with Apollo over whose system of justice is sovereign. The jury was made of citizens of Athens and was divided, and the vote came down to Athena’s ballot. Orestes was finally set free, although this angered the furies who vowed revenge on Athens, but were later compelled by Athena to not destroy the city. Athena predicted prosperity and military victory for Athens, and the citizens pledged loyalty to her. The city’s religion triumphed over the underworld, making the jury the source of justice in Athens. The conflict between the gods of the underworld and the Olympian gods was eventually settled because the people of Athens promised to offer sacrifice to the Olympian gods, the gods of the hearth, and the underworld gods. Also, the city gained autonomy by means of its sacrifices and jury system.