Category Archives: Gabriel

The Gregorian Reform

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Drawing of Pope Gregory VII, 12th Century.

By the 10th Century, the church had fallen into what is known as “lay control,” in which lay people who were neither ordained nor were church officials began to rule the church. Partly being caused by feudalism, local lords chose their own abbots, bishops, and priests. Thus, these newly appointed clergy were often promoted for non-religious or political reasons. 

The reform was named after Pope Gregory VII, who served as pope from 1073-1085. Around this time, monastic discipline had badly deteriorated because of undisciplined monks being allowed into monasteries. One of the first major steps for reform was the creation of the Cluny monastery in 910 in Burgundy, France. Established by a lay person, Duke William of Aquitaine, he said that he had no control over it and gave up authority to the Church. Becoming a center of reform, Cluny helped improve other monasteries and also affiliated with other ones as well. 

When aristocratic families began jockeying for control of the Papacy, Pope Leo IX (1049-1054) was named to the Papal office by the emperor. Despite being recommended by a lay-person, Leo started reforming many Church abuses like Simony (the act of purchasing church offices) and clerical marriages. The office of cardinals who were advisors to the Pope was also established around this time by Pope Nicholas II. 

Although Pope Gregory VII continued the reform, it slowed down by the late 1000s, since he couldn’t appoint his own people because monarchs and lords didn’t listen to him. Therefore Gregory proclaimed that the king’s role was to establish peace and order so people could pursue a Christian journey, while the Pope’s role was to teach the rules of the Church and choose clergy. Continuing, Gregory asserted that the Pope could excommunicate and depose kings as well. In 1075, Gregory held a council in which all clerics appointed by laymen were deposed and all the lords who appointed them were excommunicated, even kicking out King Henry IV of Germany, who ultimately submitted when faced with rebellion. 

Paul’s Epistles, Part 1: Colossians, First Timothy, Galatians, Romans, Ephesians

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Saint Paul Writing His Epistles | All Works | The MFAH Collections
Saint Paul writing his Epistles.

Making up the majority of the books of the New Testament, Paul’s Epistles are important to Church literature. The structure of the New Testament: Gospels (life and ministry of Jesus), Acts (the story of the early church), and Epistles (letters of encouragement or condemnation to different people or people groups). Tending to have different topics, sovereignty is the main theme in Colossians, authority in First Timothy, Law in Galatians, Sanctions in Romans, and Succession in Ephesians. 

Paul wrote Colossians during his time in prison under Emperor Nero in 60 AD. It teaches that Jesus Christ is the creator of the universe, head of the church, and reconciler of all things. Paul wrote this to affirm the Colossians’ faith in Christ. Always beginning his Epistles with a greeting, Paul went on to proclaim the sovereignty of Christ and identified Him as the designer of the world and image of God. 

Timothy is one of three pastoral Epistles, the others being Second Timothy and Titus. Written in 63 AD, the main authority is discussed frequently, specifically authority in the Church. Paul asserted his apostleship by the command of God and Christ. Since the Law of God is not for the righteous but for the unrighteous person, Paul offered a list of sins and identified himself as the chief of sinners. Paul called for the establishment of a hierarchy in the Church: men over women. He also listed the qualifications of Church offices. 

Created in the 50s, the main issue of Galatians was Law and Grace. Paul said the Gospel that he preached was sent by God. Also preaching to the Gentiles, Paul explained that since Titus was regarded as a holy and respected man but was not circumcised, no one else should be. Challenging Peter at Antioch, Paul rebuked him for going back under the old Mosaic Laws of eating and circumcision. 

Written in 57 AD, Romans vividly described the judgement of God and Sanctions. Paul explained that the power of the Gospel is given to all who believe, first to the Jews then to Greeks. A true Jew is one only inwardly, not outwardly, Paul asserted “circumcision of the heart,” for both Jews and Gentiles. Moreover, Gentiles are not under the Mosaic Law, but instead need to know the New Covenant of Jesus Christ. Paul ends by stating that God gave up man to uncleanness, and He will bring tribulation and anguish to those who rebel. 

In Ephesians, Succession and Inheritance are the central themes. Trusting in Christ is the downpayment of eternal inheritance. Knowing all things, Christ was resurrected and ascended. Paul said, “God has placed all things under His feet.” and ends Ephesians by instructing people to respect hierarchies outside of the Church, (families, masters, and slaves) and to “put on the whole armor of God.” 

9th and 10th Century Invasions

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Viking Ship - 10th Century #1 by Granger
10th Century depiction of a Viking Longship.

Starting in the 9th Century, Western Europe was barraged by Invasions from all sides, with these overwhelming attacks continuing into the 10th Century. People known as Norse, Northmen, or Vikings from Scandinavia began raiding coastal and river cities in France. 

After the death of King Louis the Pious, the Franks failed to end the invasions due to their weak central government and inability to conduct proper naval warfare. Unlike the barbarians who attacked the Roman Empire in the 3rd Century, the Vikings did not respect or want to live in Frankish lands. This caused them to be extremely brutal, destroying and looting everything in their path. Setting their sights inland, the Vikings would besiege Paris four times, pillage it three times, and burn it twice in the course of 40 years. After these raids, the Vikings would return to their homes in Scandinavia with the riches. 

Being too weak to provide protection, kings in Western Europe lost much of their power giving way to the development of feudalism. Victims of Vikings sought protection from local figures called “lords” instead of kings. In return the local lords received labor from the people called “serfs.” “Vassals” were warriors who helped defend the community and received land as compensation. 

Eventually, the Franks were forced to concede land to the Vikings (despite the Vikings not wanting to settle in foreign lands) in order to please them. This is the part of France known as “Normandy” which was given over in 911. The German lands did not suffer from Viking pillaging, but were instead faced with enemies from Central Asia known as “Magyars.” These people were not nearly as brutal as the Vikings and by 1000, many had converted to Christianity, settling in what is now Hungary. 

Around this time, England was composed of different people groups including the Angles and Saxons, who were Germanic peoples, the native Britons, and beginning in the 8th Century, even Viking attackers from Denmark. Most of the Britons accepted the conquests and did not fight, but some who wished to keep resisting settled in Wales. Seven kingdoms emerged in England: which were: Kent (populated by Danish), Essex, Sussex, and Wessex (populated by Saxons), Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia (populated by Angles). Under the rule of Alfred the Great (871-899), Wessex eventually became the most powerful of all the English kingdoms. Constructing a navy and fortifications, Alfred successfully defeated the Vikings. He also exerted the power of the Wessex monarchy which would lead to the lineage of the Kings of all of England.