Meteorology is the study of weather and prediction of weather based on observations and historical data. Extensively, it also covers climatology and atmospheric physics. Although weather can be beautiful, like a red cloud streaking across the sky during a sunset, or it can be unpleasant, like when your clothes are drenched with sweat and stick to you on a humid summer day. However, it can also be extremely dangerous, which is why the study of meteorology is important. It can even predict natural disasters like hurricanes.
To forecast weather, meteorologists use technology and conditions of the atmosphere for the given place or time. Because they are used to predict severe weather, weather warnings are vital.
Clouds
When small drops of water condense, the base of a cloud is created. There are high clouds, middle clouds, and low clouds. High clouds form 6,000 meters above the ground and they are mostly ice crystals. Middle clouds form between 2,000-6,000 meters and are formed from water and ice crystals, while low clouds form between the ground and 2,000 meters and are almost always made up of raindrops. Nimbostratus clouds are ominously dark but aren’t the most common thunderhead clouds; those would be Cumulonimbus clouds. Looking like cotton, Cumulus clouds are the most prevalent cloud shape.
Air
Air is an agent of change. For instance, it can transport particles long distances from one place to another, all the way across the earth. Relative humidity is a measure of the concentration of water vapor in the air. When relative humidity is 100%, water begins to condense out of the air. This is why cold drinks “sweat.” This air is considered saturated, so it absorbs more vapor. For the water to condense, bits of dust, salt, or smoke are required for the molecules to stick to it. This particle-filled air can condense high in the atmosphere or on the ground or on objects. If a mass of air is compressed, work is done on it, and if it is done faster than the mass can transfer heat away, it is said to undergo adiabatic heating, which literally means adiabatic means without heat transfer. Adiabatic cooling is where the air mass expands and cools.
Storms
Mid-latitude cyclones are storm systems that sweep across land from east to west and typically travel thousands of miles. A thunderstorm starts with humid, unstable air rising, condensing and forming a cumulus cloud. The falling raindrops create a downdrift of cooler air, while the falling cool air and rising warm air makes a storm cell. Particle collisions within the cloud result in static charges. Eventually, the difference in charge ends in a discharge from one charged location to another. The lighting heats the air through which it passes, causing it to expand and contract rapidly. Thunder is the pressure wave created by this. When air circulates in a cumulonimbus cloud, it can form a funnel cloud that extends below the cloud. Once this funnel cloud reaches the ground it is called a tornado. These violent storms are most common in the plains of the United States, but can also occur in Australia and Asia. Tornadoes can have winds between 65 and 450 kilometers per hour.
Weather can be peaceful and stunning, yet it can turn volatile at any second. Fortunately, the predictive sciences of Meteorology can help us survive and thrive while being in weather, and maintain a level of safety while enjoying it.
The famous battle flag of the Army of Northern Virginia.
April 16, 1861 – April 9, 1865
Commanders:
General P.G.T. Beauregard (April 16 – July 20, 1861)
General P.G.T. Beauregard.
General Joseph E. Johnston (July 20, 1861 – May 31, 1862)
General Joseph E. Johnston.
Major General Gustavus Woodson Smith (May 31 – June 1, 1862)
Major General Gustavus Woodson Smith who only commanded for 1 day.
General Robert E. Lee (June 1, 1862 – April 9, 1865)
General Robert E. Lee the most famous commander of the Army of Northern Virginia.
Campaigns/Battles Fought:
Manassas Campaign
Battle of Fairfax Court House
Battle of Vienna
Battle of Hoke’s Run
Battle of Blackburn’s Ford
1st Battle of Bull Run (or 1st Battle of Manassas)
Peninsula Campaign
Siege of Yorktown
Battle of Williamsburg
Battle of Eltham’s Landing
Battle of Hanover Court House
Battle of Seven Pines
Seven Days’ Battles
Battle of Oak Grove
Battle of Beaver Dam Mill
Battle of Gaines’ Mill
Battle of Garnett’s & Golding’s Farm
Battle of Savage’s Station
Battle of White Oak Swamp
Battle of Glendale
Battle of Malvern Hill
Northern Virginia Campaign
Battle of Cedar Mountain
1st Battle of Rappahannock Station
Battle of Manassas Station
Battle of Thoroughfare Gap
2nd Battle of Bull Run (or 2nd Battle of Manassas)
Battle of Chantilly
Maryland Campaign
Battle of Mile Hill
Battle of Harpers Ferry
Battle of Crampton’s Gap
Battle of South Mountain
Battle of Antietam (or Battle of Sharpsburg)
Battle of Shepherdstown
Raid on Chambersburg
Battle of Unison
Fredericksburg Campaign
Battle of Fredericksburg
Chancellorsville Campaign
Battle of Chancellorsville
2nd Battle of Fredericksburg
Battle of Salem Church
Stoneman’s Raid
Gettysburg Campaign
Battle of Franklin’s Crossing
Battle of Brandy Station
Battle of Aldie
Battle of Middleburg
Battle of Upperville
Battle of Fairfax Court House (1863)
Battle of Hanover
Battle of Sporting Hill
Battle of Carlisle
Battle of Gettysburg
Battle of Fairfield
Battle of Monterey Pass
Battle of Williamsport
Battle of Boonsboro
Battle of Funkstown
Battle of Manassas Gap
Bristoe Campaign
1st Battle of Auburn
2nd Battle of Auburn
Battle of Bristoe Station
Battle of Buckland Mills
2nd Battle of Rappahannock Station
Mine Run Campaign
Battle of Mine Run
Overland Campaign
Battle of the Wilderness
Battle of Todd’s Tavern
Battle of Spotsylvania Court House
Battle of Yellow Tavern
Battle of Meadow Bridge
Battle of North Anna
Battle of Wilson’s Wharf
Battle of Haw’s Shop
Battle of Totopotomoy Creek
Battle of Old Church
Battle of Cold Harbor
Battle of Trevillian Station
Battle of Saint Mary’s Church
Richmond-Petersburg Campaign
1st Battle of Petersburg
2nd Battle of Petersburg
Battle of Jersusalem Plank Road
Wilson-Kautz Raid
Battle of Staunton River Bridge
Battle of Sappony Church
1st Battle of Ream’s Station
1st Battle of Deep Bottom
Battle of the Crater
2nd Battle of Deep Bottom
Battle of Globe Tavern
2nd Battle of Ream’s Station
Beefsteak Raid
Battle of Chaffin’s Farm
Battle of Peeble’s Farm
Battle of Vaughan’s Road
Battle of Darbytown and New Market Roads
Battle of Darbytown Road
Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Roads
Battle of Boydton Plank Road
Battle of Hatcher’s Run
Battle of Fort Stedman
Appomattox Campaign
Battle of Lewis’s Farm
Battle of White Oak Road
Battle of Dinwiddie Court House
Battle of Five Forks
3rd Battle of Petersburg
Battle of Sutherland’s Station
Battle of Namozine Church
Battle of Amelia Springs
Battle of Sailor’s Creek
Battle of High Bridge
Battle of Cumberland Church
Battle of Appomattox Station
Battle of Appomattox Court House
Wing Formation
Confederate and Union armies during the Northern Virginia Campaign (August 7-28, 1862). Left Wing of Major General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson and Center Wing of Major General James Longstreet.
(used from March 14, 1862 – September 3, 1862)
(Before March 14, 1862 there was no formation used.)
The wing formation was used in the Peninsula Campaign, Seven Days’ Battles, and Northern Virginia Campaign.
Left Wing: Major General John Magruder (March 14 – August 27) and Major General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson (August 27 – September 3)
1st Division: Brigadier General Lafayette McLaws (March 14 – August 27) and Brigadier General William Taliaferro (August 27 – September 3)
2nd Division: Brigadier General Robert Toombs (March 14 – August 27) and Major General A.P. Hill (August 27 – September 3)
3rd Division: Major General Richard Ewell (August 27 – September 3)
Right/Center Wing: Major General James Longstreet
1st Division: Major General Richard H. Anderson (August 27- September 3)
2nd Division: Brigadier General David Rumph Jones (August 27 – September 3)
3rd Division: Brigadier General Cadmus Wilcox (August 27 – September 3)
4th Division: Brigadier General John Bell Hood (August 27 – September 3)
5th Division: Brigadier General James Kemper (August 27 – September 3)
Left Emplacement: Major General D.H. Hill
1st Division: Brigadier General Jubal Early
2nd Division: Brigadier General Gabriel Rains
Reserve: Major General Gustavus Woodson Smith
Cavalry Division: Major General J.E.B. Stuart
Corps Formation
The flag of the Army of Northern Virginia during the command of Robert E. Lee. Known as the “Lee’s Headquarters Flag.”
(used from September 3, 1862 – April 9, 1865)
The corps formation was used in the Maryland Campaign, Fredericksburg Campaign, Chancellorsville Campaign, Gettysburg Campaign, Bristoe Campaign, Mine Run Campaign, Overland Campaign, Richmond-Petersburg Campaign, and Appomattox Campaign.
I Corps: Major General/Lieutenant General James Longstreet
Lieutenant General James Longstreet, who commanded the I Corps for the entirety of the war.
1st Division: Major General Richard H. Anderson (September 3, 1862 – May 29, 1863) and Major General George Pickett (May 30, 1863 – April 9, 1865)
2nd Division: Major General Lafayette McLaws (September 3, 1862 – December 31, 1863) and Major General Charles Field (January 1, 1864 – April 9, 1865)
3rd Division: Major General John Bell Hood (September 3, 1862 – September 9, 1863) and Major General Joseph Kershaw (September 10, 1863 – April 9, 1865)
4th Division: Brigadier General/Major General David Rumph Jones (September 3 – October 10, 1862)
5th Division: Brigadier General John G. Walker (September 3 – November 1, 1862)
II Corps: Major General/Lieutenant General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson (September 3, 1862 – May 2, 1863), Lieutenant General A.P. Hill (May 2 – 30 1863), Lieutenant General Richard Ewell (May 30, 1863 – May 29, 1864), Lieutenant General Jubal Early (May 29 – December 20, 1864), and Major General John Gordon (December 20, 1864 – April 9, 1865)
Lieutenant General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson who commanded the II Corps during the Maryland Campaign, Fredericksburg Campaign, and Chancellorsivlle Campaign until he died of his wounds at the Battle of Chancellorsville on May 10, 1863.
1st Division: Brigadier General John R. Jones (September 3 – December 11 1862), Major General Jubal Early (December 11, 1862 – May 29, 1864), Brigadier General John Pegram (May 29, 1864 – February 5, 1865), and Brigadier General James Walker (February 5 – April 9 1865)
2nd Division: Major General A.P. Hill (September 3, 1862 – May 24, 1863), Major General Edward “Allegheny” Johnson (May 24, 1863 – May 12, 1864), Major General John Gordon (May 13 – December 20, 1864), and Brigadier General Clement A. Evans (December 20, 1864 – April 9, 1865)
3rd Division: Major General D.H. Hill (September 3, 1862 – February 1863), Major General Robert Rodes (February 1863 – September 19, 1864), and Brigadier General/Major General Bryan Grimes (September 19, 1864 – April 9, 1865)
4th Division: Brigadier General Alexander Lawton (September 3 – 17, 1862), Brigadier General William Taliaferro (September 17, 1862 – February 1863), and Brigadier General Raleigh Colston (February – May 20, 1863)
III Corps (created May 30, 1863): Lieutenant General A.P. Hill (May 30, 1863 – April 2, 1865) and Major General Henry Heth (April 2 – 9, 1865)
Lieutenant General A.P. Hill, who commanded the III Corps he was killed at the Third Battle of Petersburg on April 2, 1865. He was succeeded by Major General Henry Heth who only commanded the III Corps for 5 days until the surrender at Appomattox Court House.
1st Division: Major General/Lieutenant General Richard H. Anderson (May 30, 1863 – October 19, 1864) and Major General William Mahome (October 19, 1864 – April 9, 1865)
2nd Division: Major General Henry Heth (May 30, 1863 – April 2, 1866) and Brigadier General John Cooke (April 2 – 9, 1865)
3rd Division: Major General William Dorsey Pender (May 30 – July 18, 1863) and Cadmus Wilcox (July 18, 1863 – April 9, 1865)
IV Corps (created October 19, 1864) : Lieutenant General Richard H. Anderson
Lieutenant General Richard H. Anderson.
1st Division: Major General Bushrod Johnson
2nd Division: Major General Robert Hoke (October 19 – December, 1864)
Cavalry Corps (created September 9, 1863; before that it was the Cavalry Division commanded by Major General J.E.B. Stuart): Major General J.E.B. Stuart (September 9, 1863 – May 11, 1864), Major General/Lieutenant General Wade Hampton (May 11, 1864 – January 1865) Major General Fitzhugh Lee (January 1865 – April 9, 1865)
Major General J.E.B. Stuart. The most famous Confederate Cavalry commander during the war, he commanded all cavalry forces in the Eastern Theater until he was killed in action at the Battle of Yellow Tavern on May 12, 1864.
1st Division: Major General Wade Hampton (September 9, 1863 – August 11, 1864) and Brigadier General Thomas Rosser (August 11, 1864 – April 9, 1865)
2nd Division: Major General Fitzhugh Lee (September 9, 1863 – September 19, 1864), Brigadier General Matthew Butler (Septmeber 19, 1864 – January 1865), and Colonel/Brigadier General Thomas Munford (January – April 9, 1865)
This is a list of the 10 costliest campaigns (by the number of killed, wounded, and missing not counting captured. Casualties usually counts captured but here it doesn’t.) during the American Civil War. A Campaign is a series of battles fought to achieve a goal.
10. Cumberland and Tennesse Rivers Campaign
Drawing of Union general C.F. Smith attacking during the Battle of Fort Donelson.
30,010 Total Casualties
February – May 1862; Result: Union Victory; Location: Stewart, Hardin, Henry Co. Tennessee and Alcorn Co. Mississippi.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Fort Donelson (4,145 Casualties), Battle of Shiloh (23,746 Casualties), Siege of Corinth (2,000 Casualties)
Union: 120,000 Strength; 16,778 CasualtiesConfederacy: 65,000 Strength; 13,232 CasualtiesImportant Union Generals: Ulysses S. Grant, Henry Halleck, Don Carlos Buell, and Andrew Foote.Important Confederate Generals: P.G.T. Beauregard, Braxton Bragg, Earl Van Dorn, John Floyd, Gideon Pillow, Llyod Tilghman (prisoner), Simon Bolivar Buckner (prisoner), and Albert Sidney Johnson (killed).
9. Chancellorsville Campaign
Union Soldiers of the VI Corps of the Army of the Potomac before the Second Battle of Fredericksburg.
30,351 Total Casualties
April – May 1863; Result: Confederate Victory; Location: Spotsylvania Co. Virginia.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Chancellorsville (19,274 Casualties), Battle of Salem Church (9,546 Casualties), Second Battle of Fredericksburg (2,000 Casualties)
Union: 133,868 Strength; 17,287 CasualtiesStrength: 60,298 Strength; 12,764 CasualtiesImportant Union Generals: Joseph Hooker, George Meade, John Sedgewick, George Stoneman, Daniel Sickles, Darious Couch, John Reynolds, Henry Slocum, Winfield Hancock, Alfred Pleasonton, William Averell, and Oliver Howard.Important Confederate Generals: Robert E. Lee, James Longstreet, Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson (killed), J.E.B. Stuart, Richard H. Anderson, George Pickett, A.P. Hill, Fitzhugh Lee, Wade Hampton, John Bell Hood, and Jubal Early.
8. Chickamauga Campaign
Painting of the Battle of Chickamauga.
34,624 Total Casualties
August – September 1863; Result: Confederate Victory; Location: Catoosa, Walker, Dade Co. Georgia and Hamilton Co. Tennessee.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Chickamauga (34,624 Casualties)
Union: 60,000 Strength; 16,170 Casualties.Confederacy: 65,000 Strength; 18,454 Casualties.Important Union Generals: William Rosecrans, George H. Thomas, Thomas Wood, Alexander McCook, James Negley, and John Widler.Important Confederate Generals: Braxton Bragg, James Longstreet, John Bell Hood, John Breckenridge, Thomas Hindman, D.H. Hill.
7. Appomattox Campaign
High Bridge over the Appomattox River. Site of the Battle of High Bridge, April 6-7, 1865
35,780 Total Casualties
March – April 1865; Result: Confederate Victory; Location: Dinwiddie, Amelia, Prince Edward, Cumberland, and Appomattox Co. Virginia.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Five Forks (3,800 Casualties), Third Battle of Petersburg (8,936 Casualties), Battle of Sailor’s Creek (8,848 Casualties)
Union: 114,335 Strength; 10,780 Casualties.Confederacy: 56,000 Strength; 25,000 Casualties.Important Union Generals: Ulysses S, Grant, George Meade, Edward O.C. Ord, Phillip Sheridan, Andrew Humphreys, Gouvener Warren, Horatio Wright, John Parke, John Gibbon, Godfrey Weitzel, Wesley Merritt, George Crook, and George Custer.Important Confederate Generals: Robert E. Lee, James Longstreet, John Gordon, A.P. Hill (killed), Richard H. Anderson, Fitzhugh Lee, Richard Ewell, Henry Wise, George Pickett, and Joseph Kershaw (all surrendered).
6. Maryland Campaign
Dead Confederate soldiers on Hagerstown Road after the Battle of Antietam.
44,501 Casualties Total
September 1862; Result: Union Victory; Location: Washington, Frederick Co. Maryland, Loudoun Co. Virginia, and Jefferson Co. West Virginia.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Antietam (22,727 Casualties) and Battle of South Mountain (5,010 Casualties)
Union: 102,234 Strength; 28,272 Casualties.Confederacy: 55,000 Strength; 16,229 Casualties.Important Union Generals: George B. McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, William B. Franklin, Jesse L. Reno (killed), Fitz John Porter, Joseph Hooker, Edwin Summer, Joseph Mansfield, William Franklin, and Alfred Pleasonton.Important Confederate Generals: Robert E. Lee, Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, A.P. Hill, D.H. Hill, J.E.B. Stuart, William Pendelton, John Bell Hood, Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee and Richard H. Anderson.
5. Peninsula Campaign
Union General Thomas F. Meagher at the Battle of Seven Pines (AKA Fair Oaks).
52,417 Total Casualties
March-July 1862; Result: Confederate Victory; Location: Mainly Henrico and Hanover Co., also York, James City, New Kent, and Chesterfield Co. Virginia.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Seven Pines (11,565 Casualties), Battle of Gaines’ Mill (15,330 Casualties), Battle of Malvern Hill (8,650 Casualties), Battle of Glendale (7,470 Casualties)
Union: 105,587 Strength; 23, 119 Casualties.Confederacy: 112,220 Strength; 29,298 Casualties.Important Union Generals: George B. McClellan, Samuel Heintzleman, Winfield Hancock, Fitz John Porter, Edwin Summer, Erasmus Keyes, John Sedgewick, Joseph Hooker, Darious Couch, George Sykes, and George Stoneman.Important Confederate Generals: Robert E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston (wounded), John Magruder, James Longstreet, Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, D.H. Hill, Jubal Early, A.P. Hill, Richard H. Anderson, Jubal Early, George Pickett, Joseph Kershaw, J.E.B. Stuart, Wade Hampton (wounded), and Gustavus Smith.
4. Gettysburg Campaign
A drawing of the Battle of Brandy Station, which was the largest cavalry battle of the War.
64,043 Total Casualties
June – July 1863; Result: Union Victory; Location: Spotsylvania, Stafford, Culpepper, Frederick, Loudoun, Fairfax, and Warren Co. Virginia, York, Cumberland, Adams, and Franklin Co. Pennsylvania, and Washington Co. Maryland.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Gettysburg (51,049 Casualties), Second Battle of Winchester (4,712 Casualties), Battle of Brandy Station (1,530 Casualties)
Union: 104,256 Strength; 32,043 Casualties.Confederacy: 75,000 Strength; 32,000 Casualties.Important Union Generals: George Meade, Joseph Hooker, John Reynolds, Winfield Hancock, Daniel Sickles (wounded), George Sykes, John Sedgewick, Oliver Howard, Henry Slocum, Alfred Pleasonton, Robert Milroy, and Judson Kilpatrick.Important Confederate Generals: Robert E. Lee, J.E.B. Stuart, A.P. Hill, Fitzhugh Lee, James Longstreet, Richard Ewell, George Pickett, John Bell Hood, Jubal Early, Richard H. Anderson, Henry Heth, and Wade Hampton.
3. Atlanta Campaign
Burning of Atlanta, Georgia by Sherman’s army.
66,666 Total Casualties
May – September 1864; Result: Union Victory; Location: Whitfield, Gordon, Calhoun, Bartow, Paulding, Cobb, Lee, Fulton, DeKalb, Coweta, and Clayton Co. Georgia.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of Resaca (7,000 Casualties), Battle of Kennesaw Mountain (4,000 Casualties), Battle of Peachtree Creek (4,400 Casualties), Battle of Atlanta (9,222 Casualties), Battle of Ezra Church (3,642 Casualties)
Union: 112,819 Strength; 31,687 Casualties.Confederacy: 78,000 Strength; 34,979 Casualties.Important Union Generals: William T. Sherman, George H. Thomas, James McPherson (killed), John Schofield, Oliver Howard, and Joesph Hooker.Important Confederate Generals: Joseph E. Johnston, John Bell Hood, William Hardee, Leonidas Polk (killed), Joseph Wheeler, Thomas Hindman, Patrick Cleburne.
2. Richmond-Petersburg Campaign
Confederate trenches after the battles. Petersburg, Virginia, April 3, 1865.
70,000 Total Casualties
June 1864 – March 1865; Result: Union Victory; Location: Mainly Henrico and Dinwiddie Co. and Petersburg, Virginia also Prince George, Brunswick, Charlotte, Greensville, Halifax, Lunenburg, Mecklenburg, Nottoway, and Sussex Co. Virginia.
Major Battles in Campaign: Second Battle of Petersburg (15,386), Battle of the Crater (5,289), Second Battle of Deep Bottom (4,399), Battle of Globe Tavern (5,916), Battle of Fort Stedman (5,044)
Union: 125,000 Strength; 42,000 Casualties.Confederacy: 60,000 Strength; 28,000 Casualties.Important Union Generals: Ulysses S. Grant, George Meade, Benjamin Butler, Winfield Hancock, Gouvener Warren, Horatio Wright, Ambrose Burnside, Phillip Sheridan, Godfrey Weitzel, David Birney, Edward O.C. Ord, and William F. Smith.Important Confederate Generals: Robert E. Lee, P.G.T. Beauregard, James Longstreet, Richard Ewell, A.P. Hill, Richard H. Anderson, George Pickett, Jubal Early, Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee, and Robert Hoke.
1. Overland Campaign
Battle of Spotsylvania Court House fought May 9-21, 1864, was the largest battle of the Overland Campaign.
89,926 Total Casualties
May – June 1864; Result: Union Victory, despite taking 44% casualties. Confederate took 54% Casualties; Location: Spotsylvania, Orange, Henrico, Caroline, Hanover, Charles City, and Louisa Co. Virginia.
Major Battles in Campaign: Battle of the Wilderness (28,699 Casualties), Battle of Spotsylvania Court House (31,086 Casualties), Battle of Cold Harbor (18,025 Casualties)
Union: 124,232 Strength; 54,926 Casualties.Confederacy: 65,000 Strength; 35,000 Casualties.Ulysses S. Grant, George Meade, Ambrose Burnside, Winfield Hancock, John Sedgewick (killed), Phillip Sheridan, William F. Smith, David Birney, and Horatio Wright.Robert E. Lee, James Longstreet (wounded), Richard Ewell, A.P. Hill, J.E.B. Stuart (killed), Richard H. Anderson, Jubal Early, Henry Heth, George Pickett, Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee, and Robert Rodes.
