Catiline left the city of Rome when he was called out by Cicero, who wanted to justify Catiline’s departure as a conspiracy by identifying members as ethical rebels and economic failures. Giving himself full credit for his work, Cicero stated that the Republic’s survival was at risk and blamed internal enemies like Catiline, adding that Catiline would soon lead an army against Rome. 

Cicero addressed the Senate by alleging that Catiline led an army of scoundrels and wastrels, the conspiracy is made up of losers, and they are all threats to the republic. Arrogantly stating that the gods worked through him, Cicero proclaimed that Catiline would be defeated when he led an army on Rome. However, there were still supporters of Catiline inside the city that needed to be taken care of, persuaded Cicero. 

People who were in debt, immoral, and weak warriors made up Catiline’s army. Cicero urged power to be handed over to him by the Senate because the gods favored Catiline’s defeat. Although the Senate had not yet decided what to do with the conspirators of Catiline, Cicero wanted them to be executed without trial. Knowing that there would be grumblings from the people if the trial did not take place, Cicero spoke to the people in order to identify himself with Jupiter and the Republic. He also reminded them that the Senate had previously honored him, asking only for his good reputation in their minds. 

Announcing to the people the capture of the conspirators, the Senate had given Cicero great honor and he wished only to be remembered for this. In so doing, the Senate had saved the nation, Cicero announced. Because he knew there would be murmurings after the executions, Cicero made several orations in which he explained himself to the people in order to cut short future criticism. Instead of directly calling for their execution, Cicero invoked the gods, citizens, and even slaves, saying all would agree that the conspiracy was totally evil. 

In his first oration, Cicero persuaded Catiline to leave and brought no formal accusation against him, but demonized him. “He has gone, he has departed, he has disappointed, he has rushed out, he is prostrate, stricken, looking back, mourns, vomited out, his followers; dregs of the Republic,” reads the second oration. Cicero used rhetoric, but also five principles which were: Sovereignty: the gods of Rome; Authority: he was the consul who saved Rome; Law: the law of the Senate; Sanctions: death to representative figures of the conspiracy; Succession: the Roman Republic is eternal. In the end, the execution of five men frightened Catiline’s supporters, who fled. Cicero would eventually be murdered by Mark Antony in 42 B.C.

In the early days of Christianity, the Roman Empire did everything it could to destroy the Church. They were unsuccessful, and the spread of Christianity continued under persecution and eventually spread so far that even the emperor of Rome was converted. Although it seems that the Roman Empire hurt Christianity, it could have actually helped, as communication and travel in Rome made preaching and ministry easier. 

The first martyr was Saint Stephen who wasn’t killed by the Romans but by the Jews in 34 AD. This was witnessed by a man named Saul, later called Paul of Tarsus. He was a Jew from Asia Minor and frequently persecuted Christains. On his way to Damascus to find Christains, he was knocked from his horse by a bright light and a voice saying, “Why persecutest thou me?” After this stunning revelation Paul lived in the desert for three years to think and pray, and then returned to Damascus to preach Christ. Former allies of Paul turned against him for this, and he changed his name to Paul instead of Saul. 

After being met with a violent response in Jerusalem, he traveled to Asia Minor to preach to the Gentiles. Paul became a leading figure in the Church and said that the Law of Moses served its purpose, and Christains do not need to keep Jewish law. He continued his missionary trips over 13,000 miles, during which he was frequently arrested. Paul wrote many letters known as “Epistles” to different communities of Christains or individual people. These “Epistles” now compose a large part of the New Testament books of the Bible. Paul was finally martyred for Christ during Nero’s persecution in Rome in 67 AD. 

By the 2nd Century AD, there weren’t as many empire-wide planned killings of Christains, but local ones continued. There was even a statement written by Emperor Trajan that ordered citizens to not investigate Christains, but to only kill them if they admitted to being faithful. That was until the Great Persecution of Diocletian from 303-305 AD during which the eastern part of the Empire was hit particularly hard. After Diocletian stepped down as emperor the persecutions became lighter. In 306 AD, Constantine became the first Christian emperor. He was converted after putting the cross on his soldier’s shields, then winning a great victory. In 313 AD, Constantine implemented the Edict of Milan and Edict of Toleration, stopping all persecutions of Christains and even returned stolen land to Christains. 

An extremely influential and famous man in ancient Rome, Cicero was known as a master of rhetoric and logic, a great public speaker, and a member of the Roman Senate. Cicero wrote extensively on his use of rhetoric, stating that there is no systematic structure or coherence in rhetoric. A book does not make you a good speaker, explained Cicero. Rhetoric must be learned on the job. 

One of the most notable instances of Cicero using his skills of rhetoric and public speaking was his condemnation of Catiline, who had organized a conspiracy against Cicero after both of them ran for consul and Cicero won. Furiously, Catiline led an army outside of Rome attempting to take control. Cicero addressed the Senate and hinted that the recent death of Catiline’s wife was done at the hands of Catiline. Cicero also amplified his financial difficulties and public vices, which invoked the public’s welfare. The speech’s goal was to isolate Catiline, scare him into leaving, persuade the Senate to cut ties with him, avoid taking legal action, and warn Catiline’s supporters that their leader was almost out of money. Cicero’s great skills of persuasion and slander of his opponents were put on display here. By presenting himself as a victim, showing that he was restrained, invoking the Republic’s tradition of execution, and suggesting nefarious schemes, Cicero masterfully used rhetoric to shutout and condemn Catiline. Cicero continued to ridicule Catiline as someone who should be pitied, and undermined Catiline’s supposed subordination to honorable men. In fact, Cicero warned Catiline that he would lose, and called down Jupiter’s wrath saying that banishment will destroy Catiline and his supporters. Cicero never actually brought any formal charges against Catiline and never officially brought action, instead used rhetoric to slander Catiline into ending the revolt, as well as turned Cataline’s own supporters against him. 

Cicero had multiple goals that he achieved: winning over the Senate; persuading Catiline to leave Rome; not gaining the reputation of tyranny; eliminating a threat to the Republic; using multiple rhetorical techniques to make serious-sounding accusations; not bringing formal charges and not starting a trial; presenting himself as restrained and as a victim; invoking gods, the Republic, and tradition; using the Senate’s silence as condemnation; pointing out that Catiline sat alone; embarrassing the Senate for tolerating Catiline; and speaking for the welfare of Rome. Cicero shaped Western rhetoric by not setting forth a coherent system for it, but by using his power of language and tactics as a model of public verbal confrontation.