Consisting of 27 books, four of which are Gospels and 21 are Epistles, the New Testament was primarily written by the Apostle Paul and the 12 Disciples of Jesus. The Epistles were aimed at various churches or people that needed guidance. These letters involve rhetoric while the historical books, called Gospels, established a background of the Church and the teachings of Jesus. 

The Gospels were written in the 1st century, the oldest complete copy is from 360 AD. Widely known by about 100 AD these books were written in Koine Greek, a language used during trade. The Old Testament was regarded as authoritative in the New Testament. Chapters and verses were not added until much later in the 13th and 16th centuries. Unlike Greek literature written for entertainment purposes, the New Testament was meant for worship. Roman literature was focused on the city of Rome and was tied to the past and present, while the New Testament was about the teachings of one man and had specific views of the future. Classical literature relied on mythology, but the gospels of Christ were historic accounts.

The earliest and shortest of the four Gospels, Mark is about the life and ministry of Jesus. Gospel means “good news,” Christ means “anointed,” and Jesus means “Yahweh” or “salvation.” Baptism was not practiced by the Jews before Jesus, when he was baptized by John. Mark begins with a declaration proclaiming that Jesus is the son of God. Using miracles to reinforce His message, Jesus began preaching the Kingdom of God. He gained opposition from religious leaders, since He was not a Levite meaning that he was not eligible to become a priest. The religious leaders called “Pharisees” and “Sadducees” disliked him because he held meetings with sinners, like tax collectors, and prostitutes. Proclaiming a new unique law and order, Jesus’ coming was to fulfill the Old Covenant and assert the New Covenant. Along with increasing opposition, Jesus also gained massive amounts of followers, His 12 disciples, and many others. The Disciples were empowered by Jesus and given the ability to heal; this way His message would spread faster. Speaking in parables, Jesus told the story of the mustard seed, which said most people would not accept his message, and among those who did, most would eventually fall away.

The strongest and most significant of the barbarian groups, the Franks, were one of the first of these uncivilized peoples to actually convert to Christianity instead of Arianism, greatly aiding the spread of Christianity during the early Middle Ages. There were two influential families in the Kingdom of the Franks: the Merovinigians and Carolingians. 

A member of the Merovingians, Clovis, ruled the Franks from 481-511. Regarded as a tenacious warrior and an illustrious ruler, Clovis persuaded the Frankish people to follow him when he converted to Christianity in 496. First accepting Christ in secret, Clovis then explained the unfamiliar religion to his warriors leading thousands to convert on the spot. 

Wanting to expand, Clovis conquered the Visigoths and divided his kingdom among his sons. Continuing the conquest, Clovis’ sons subdued the Burgundians in eastern Gaul and Ostrogoths in the eastern Alps. The Merovingian family continued to rule the Franks in the 6th century but were not skilled administrators, as they often fought among themselves. Merovingian power began to fade with the rise of another prominent family: the Carolingians. 

Charles Martel, a Carolingian, famously defeated the Muslim invaders at the Battle of Tours in 732, and became a hero. Because of this and the Merovingians incompetence, the Carolingians became de facto rulers of the Franks. A prominent man named Pepin the Short wished for his Carolingians to become de jure rulers over the Franks but wanted to take power legitimately without a struggle. Consequently, he got a blessing from the Pope to change the dynasty. There were two reasons the Pope gave his blessing: the fact that the Carolingians were more genuine in their faith than the Merovingians and the estrangement of the Popes from their former Byzantine protectors. 

Charlemagne has been called the “Father of Europe” due to his extreme fame and influence as a ruler and warrior. He was certainly the greatest fighter of the early Middle Ages, and exerted power over all Frankish lands including modern day France, Belgium, Netherlands, Western Germany, Switzerland, and northern Italy. Ruling alongside his brother in the early days of his reign, Charlemagne took full control when his brother died in 771 and ruled until 814. Unlike some of the past leaders, Charlemagne seemed to be a genuine Christain, helping distressed Christains and ensuring their safety in foreign lands. Charlemagne was pro-papal and fought all those who resisted, ultimately leading 53 campaigns in which he was always in the front of the battle. Charlemagne spread Christianity widely and converted the Saxons, although this was mostly done by forced conversion. In a historical moment, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, bringing back the idea of an empire that had civilizing intentions, law, and brought about peace.

A poet from the 1st century BC, Horace wrote “Odes” and “Satires” which discussed the way one should live their life and Horace’s own view on the gods. A common theme in “Odes,” was life and death, and how making it a top priority to store up riches for yourself is not ideal. Horace said that death would take everyone and equalize them in the end. Working too hard for wealth was futile, explaining that one should enjoy whatever they possess and take it easy one day at a time so they won’t be disappointed in the long term. Seeking tranquility was vital according to Horace who told of the “golden mean:” do not expect too much and you won’t be let down. 

Horace accepted Stoicism and Epicureanism. These philosophies instructed us to enjoy the bountiful aspects of life, and refrain from overdoing things. “Do not be too courageous, or cowardly, and do not be too rich or poor,” stated Horace. Obsessed with death, Horace called it “the great leveler.” Fortune played games with men, good times and bad times alternated. The gods chose this but are unpredictable, so Horace commanded not to worry about death since it is inevitable. Pursuing wealth and power is bad: “big trees fall in the wind.” In turmoil, Rome will be saved by Augustus, asserted Horace. Not being governed by ethics, history had no pattern, so good doesn’t always win, and bad doesn’t always lose. Horace believed that sanctions were random and are not based on punishment for wrongdoing. 

In the poem “Satires,” the poet began by saying that people who are discontent with their wealth and position complain, but never take action. Horace did not understand the quest for wealth, wondering what the point was of building up wealth for untrustworthy heirs. “The ant knows better, she consumes what she gathers.” Money doesn’t define a person and their character, an individual should set a limit to their own greed. Warning against being overcritical, Horace remarked that we should regard other’s faults as lightly as our own. Thinking of justice as flawed, Horace thought a punishment should fit the crime, “If you deny this, you deny Justice.” Although one would not be rewarded by the gods or fate for being righteous (positive sanctions are completely random), Horace wanted virtue to be recognized and vice to be lessened.