A poet from the 1st century BC, Horace wrote “Odes” and “Satires” which discussed the way one should live their life and Horace’s own view on the gods. A common theme in “Odes,” was life and death, and how making it a top priority to store up riches for yourself is not ideal. Horace said that death would take everyone and equalize them in the end. Working too hard for wealth was futile, explaining that one should enjoy whatever they possess and take it easy one day at a time so they won’t be disappointed in the long term. Seeking tranquility was vital according to Horace who told of the “golden mean:” do not expect too much and you won’t be let down. 

Horace accepted Stoicism and Epicureanism. These philosophies instructed us to enjoy the bountiful aspects of life, and refrain from overdoing things. “Do not be too courageous, or cowardly, and do not be too rich or poor,” stated Horace. Obsessed with death, Horace called it “the great leveler.” Fortune played games with men, good times and bad times alternated. The gods chose this but are unpredictable, so Horace commanded not to worry about death since it is inevitable. Pursuing wealth and power is bad: “big trees fall in the wind.” In turmoil, Rome will be saved by Augustus, asserted Horace. Not being governed by ethics, history had no pattern, so good doesn’t always win, and bad doesn’t always lose. Horace believed that sanctions were random and are not based on punishment for wrongdoing. 

In the poem “Satires,” the poet began by saying that people who are discontent with their wealth and position complain, but never take action. Horace did not understand the quest for wealth, wondering what the point was of building up wealth for untrustworthy heirs. “The ant knows better, she consumes what she gathers.” Money doesn’t define a person and their character, an individual should set a limit to their own greed. Warning against being overcritical, Horace remarked that we should regard other’s faults as lightly as our own. Thinking of justice as flawed, Horace thought a punishment should fit the crime, “If you deny this, you deny Justice.” Although one would not be rewarded by the gods or fate for being righteous (positive sanctions are completely random), Horace wanted virtue to be recognized and vice to be lessened.

A philosopher, writer, and theologian, St. Augustine was one of the most profound Christian figures of his time. He even had a large impact on later theologians, such as Thomas Acquinas. 

Also known as Augustine of Hippo, he was born in Roman Northern Africa and was raised by a Christain mother. As a young man, Augustine lived in sin and was not Christain, but instead practiced many different religions and philosophies. Continually, Augustine would be left dissatisfied by these religions, like when he converted from Manichaesm to Skepticism in 383. At this time, he went to Rome and Milan to teach rhetoric and became a Neo-Platinist. While in Milan, Augustine met St. Ambrose of Milan who was preaching Christianity in a church. Known to be an exceptional public speaker, St. Ambrose became friends with Augustine. However, Augustine was not immediately converted to Christianity. After thoroughly reading and studying the Bible, Augustine finally accepted the faith in 383. He later became bishop of Hippo, Algeria, but found it hard to convert the people in the city. 

Highly influenced by Plato, Augustine answered Plato’s question of “the forms” by concluding that the form of everything were the archetypes of how God created the world. Continuing, Augustine stated that the same way the sun makes things visible is how divine light makes eternal truths visible. Asserting that happiness is what every human should pursue, Augustine meant for people to find happiness in God’s grace, not worldly things. God’s eternal laws are written on every man’s heart, so following these laws is what God meant man to do. Since Man is corrupted by original sin, he needs divine grace to observe these laws.

Augustine’s two most famous books were “The Confessions” and “City of God.” In The first part of “The Confessions” Augustine talks about his sinful life as a young man, but in the latter half speaks on a controversy which asserted that Christianity led to the end of the Roman Empire. Augustine refuted this by explaining that Rome’s demise was caused internally because of sin and corruption. In “City of God,” Augustine stated how there were two groups of men: those who love God and those who love themselves. Hence the City of God and the City of Man have always run parallel to each other throughout human history.

The first part of Ovid’s “Metamorphoses” thoroughly discussed the story of creation, saying chaos was the original source of everything and that humans were formed by stones which were thrown. The rest of the work talked about the morals of the gods, the conflicts between them, and the wicked actions that they usually commit. 

Known to treat humans poorly, gods like Jove used humans as “playthings”, Ovid asserted. Lecherous, adulterous, and a rapist, Jove lied to his wife constantly, and was distrustful. Ovid explained that the wickedness of the gods was partly caused because they have eternal life, saying that it was a curse not a blessing. Although most men want eternal life, the gods hate it, so Ovid asked why men want to have it. Involving Apollo and Cupid, another conflict between the gods breaks out when Cupid is taunted by Apollo. This leads to Apollo’s lover Daphne being turned into a laurel tree by Cupid. Interestingly, Ovid stated that love and repulsion were already decided by fate and that people are powerless to change it. 

Following the narrative of the wickedness of the gods, Jupiter is portrayed as a lusting, lying, ethical monster. Although he was at the top of the hierarchy of the gods, that did not mean that Jupiter was righteous. Rather, Jupiter was at the top of this set hierarchy, where men are below the gods and have to pay respect to them. Ovid mentioned that this hierarchy was set in nature long ago when two women tried to rebel against the gods and negative sanctions were brought upon them. Once righteous, men tried to rebel against the gods, who defeated them and turned them into sinful beings who have “no further historical or ethical development.” 

Although the gods are shown to be far from perfect, Ovid showed that if they have too much pride they will be humbled. Two gods, Arachne and Minerva had deep pride; Arachne’s pride is based on skill and Minerva’s is based on hierarchy more than skill. Arachne refused to acknowledge that Minerva gave her this skill and Minerva refused to acknowledge Arachne’s greater skill. Demanding worship based on her power, good looks, wealth, and greater skill, Arachne is turned into a spider for her pride and her denial of the relevance of invisible gods. Humans who show pride are destroyed, and the gods, especially Apollo, are ruthless in their response against them. Ovid: “pride goeth before the fall.”