Thomas Aquinas was one of the most important philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages and still greatly influences Catholic theology to this day. He is known for using reason, instead of faith to prove God’s existence. 

Written in the 13th Century, the “Quinque Viae,” meaning “Five Ways,” used five arguments based on reason to prove the existence of God. Unmoved Mover, the first way, stated that the universe could not continue to exist, and change could not occur without God keeping it going and being a source of change. According to the second way, everything in the universe has a source and is thus an effect of that source, if a given event occurs, then it is the result of a previous related event. Aquinas called this universal causation. His third way called contingency, added that there are certain things which are possible and possible not to be, if everything is contingent and capable of going out of existence, nothing would exist now. Therefore, there must be something – a higher power that is imperishable and necessary: God. Degree, the Fourth Way listed by Aquinas, asserted that there are certain things which vary in degree of “goodness,” i.e. some things in the world are better than others like, healthy versus sick, alive versus dead, tall versus short. Hence, there must be something which is best and most true that judges and gives goodness. This too is God, who causes good in all else. The Fifth and final reason told by Saint Thomas Aquinas was cause or ends, meaning that various objects which lack intelligence still behave in regular or predictable ways, this cannot be due to chance since then they would have unpredictable results. So their behavior must be set by someone or something, as it cannot be by itself since it is not intelligent. Again, God is the One setting their behavior. 

Reason and rhetoric were the main tools used by Aquinas to prove not only God’s existence but also his divine attributes. Around the same time the Quinque Viae was published, Aquinas asserted five of God’s divine attributes. 1: There is only one God. 2: God never changes. 3: God is all powerful, afterall, how could He give powers to others while not possessing them Himself. 4: Since humans have intellect and will, God also possesses them. 5: Finally, God is perfect, 100% divine, and all-knowing with no negative features and no room for improvement.

Most famous for writing his autobiography “The Confessions” and the philosophical treatise “The City of God,” Augustine also penned numerous sermons which were meant to both inspire remembrance throughout the generations and to persuade others. Sometimes convoluted and complex, his sermons were not even read by many common people at the time. 

Augustine’s writings focused on persecution, when he said that another person can kill your body, but never your soul, thus Augustine advised to fear God instead of persecutors and to beware the death of your soul, since God will kill it if you act unrighteously. Augustine’s sermon called “sheep and wolves” focused on serpents and doves. He spoke of old snakes shedding their skin and compared this with abandoning the “old man,” or old ways of sin, and Christians as peaceful like doves but also wise like serpents. 

Citing martyrs as a strong example to all other faithful, Augustine’s main point was that they accepted the death of their body in exchange for the life of their eternal soul; they wouldn’t betray Christ. Using Peter as an example, Augustine asserted that he represented the Church and the Christian people, because when one trusts Christ they will not sink. However, when trust in oneself is larger than trust in God, he will sink in the stormy sea as did Peter. Moreover, the world is the sea, pulling people into its dangerous water, with a great threat being tranquility in life. When times are good, people let their guards down to temptations. 

Although tribulations, hardships, and persecutions may seem like the most dangerous and likely ways one might break away from Christ, Augustine urged Christians to be on guard against the offenses of the world, including enticements from friends or family. When asked how to resist these pitfalls, Augustine advised to obey God’s law and avoid being pleased with oneself for good deeds, as this only happens because of God’s grace. So strong is God’s grace, that it can even transform heathens and barbarians into people of God. Augustine thought that the world was old and failing and Christians were pilgrims therein. Eventually, all of creation would pass away, he surmised that there was no possibility of the world improving throughout history.

The word “Renaissance” means a rebirth, or a renewal of interest in historical philosophy, literature, art, architecture, or law. Following the Renaissance of the 12th Century was the second major “rebirth,” following the Carolingian Renaissance in the 9th Century. 

In the early Middle Ages, ancient Roman literature had largely been forgotten due to the many wars and famines across Europe. Even during the 12th Century, ancient literature had not been the main focus, rather Roman philosophy, that enamored the thinkers, although there was some reading of Latin authors and poets including Virgil and Ovid. 

Unlike the Carolingian Renaissance, where old works were simply copied, the 12th Century involved the studying of ancient works and the writings of commentaries. Another focus was directed towards Roman law and history. 

One of the greatest translators of the 12th Century, Gerard of Cremona, translated the ancient mathematicians, astronomists, and doctors, Euclid, Ptolomy, Galen, Hippocrates, and Avicenna. These works were most commonly translated into Arabic or Latin, from ancient Latin and Greek.

In ancient Greece and Rome, there was an interest in education, with many schools and colleges being founded in their major cities, however by the early Middle Ages, there was little education, with most schools being destroyed during the Dark Ages. Starting in the 12th Century, major universities were founded, including: Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, and Bologna. Each university was known for different things. Paris was famous for theology and Bologna for law. Upon graduating from one of these prestigious universities, one would be able to teach almost anywhere in Europe. 

Interestingly, the university system was intertwined with the Church. For instance, a university needed a charter granted by the Pope in order to be established, while the universities depended upon the Church for protection. Many famous theologians from that time either studied or taught at major universities across Europe. Even St. Thomas Aquinas wrote an organization of theology that reflected on life there. The establishment of universities was a major step in education and gave many more people access to the studies of theology, law, literature, history, philosophy, etc.