During the late Middle Ages, Gothic cathedrals were common in Western Europe, especially in France. They were built with geometric coherence and an abundance of windows so natural light could be used. Large stained glass windows were also added to churches at this time. Many of the most famous Catholic cathedrals were constructed during this time, such as Notre-Dame Cathedral in France, Salisbury Cathedral in England, and Cologne Cathedral in Germany. 

Before the 10th Century, many Europeans lived in rural areas on farms or worked as serfs. In the late Middle Ages people started building homes around fortifications and congregating in villages. Previously, towns were controlled by the lord of the castle, but eventually they became independent. In order to escape from serfdom, there was a great migration from rural areas to towns and cities during this period since serfdom was not allowed in the cities. However, the taxes were higher. Moreover, civilians in the towns had the right to vote for town officials and the towns had guilds which regulated prices on goods. Some European countries even lifted restrictions on internal and international trade during the late Middle Ages, which helped the economy of these nations rise. England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire often traded with each other when they weren’t at war.

 The Hanseatic League was a merchant alliance which originated from the guild of merchants and cooperated against pirates, tax collectors, and debtors. By the 14th century, 52 towns and cities joined the Hanseatic League. The league waged economic war against offending cities and cleared the North Sea of pirates. Eventually, the league became oppressive by forcing cities to join with threats of violence, imposing unfair regulations, and even hiring pirates. 

After water mills were built across Europe, there was a boom in the textile industry during the 13th century. After the “private enterprise” became more common, the European economy thrived during the late Middle Ages, in fact, the use of private businesses was one of the factors that helped shape the modern world. Political decentralization also made owning your own enterprise easier. At this time, Western Europe was one civilization (Christendom) but numerous political units. Later, political competition, along with the influence of the Church, led to the end of the oppressive rule of kings.

As towns grew in Western Europe serfdom decreased. By the 16th century, serfdom was very rare, unlike in Eastern Europe, which remained largely rural and had large amounts of serfs well into the 19th century. Overall, the late Middle Ages was a period of recovery from the Dark Ages and the fall of the Roman Empire.