Frederick Barbarossa (1122-1190) was emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. During his reign, he tried to take control of Italy and reunite the old Roman Empire. Consequently, Pope Alexander III (r. 1159-1181) formed defensive alliance with the Lombards. Emperor Fredrick’s forces invaded Italy and burned Milan to the ground; however, they were later defeated. Interestingly, Frederick and the Pope reconciled and even became allies after the war. 

After Frederick Barbarosa’s death in 1190 two families vied for power over the empire, with Otto I taking the crown in 1209. Emperor Otto I defied the Pope by invading Southern Italy, which caused the Pope to seek to instate Frederick II, Frederick Barbarossa’s son. Frederick II did later become emperor and agreed to the Pope’s demands of allying with the Vatican. Even though Emperor Frederick II promised to let alone Sicily and Southern Italy, he annexed it into the Holy Roman Empire, and proceeded to plunder area’s Byzantine Orthodox churches and monasteries.

Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II was so focused on gaining Italy that he made concessions to German princes. This capitulation would ultimately lower his power back home. In 1227, Frederick II was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX, since he allegedly stirred up hatred against the Pope. In response, Frederick expelled all friars from Sicily and threatened to hang any people who came to him with papal documents. Pope Gregory IX called for a council in Rome in 1241, but Frederick II arrested all the bishops trying to attend the council. Finally, Gregory’s successor, Pope Innocent IV, held a council in Lyons where he ordered Frederick II to be deposed. 

After Frederick II’s death in 1250, the Holy Roman throne was not held for 20 years. In 1273, Rudolf I became emperor but wasn’t able to fully centralize the empire because the princes had acquired too much power under Frederick II. Therefore, Southern Italy was not reclaimed, and its territory was divided up between the Papal States or other independent city states. 

During the late Middle Ages, there was a revival of old ways of entertainment, such as the Goliards, a wandering gang of poets who wrote songs about wine, women, and fun. There was also a resurgence of public dramas and plays, similar to the old Roman ones. But people also created new theatrical performances, such as events from the Bible. In towns and cities across Europe, people set up outdoor theaters, resembling old Roman amphitheaters. The “Song of Roland” was one of these stories and was prominent in Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries. 

Writer Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) penned the “Divine Comedy,” a three-part series about paradise, purgatory, and hell. The famous section of the “Divine Comedy” about hell, known as “Dante’s Inferno,” helped secure the “Divine Comedy” as a masterpiece of Western Literature. He wrote that Satan sits in ice, and is constantly chewing on Judas Iscariot, the man who betrayed Jesus. Dante states there are seven levels of hell with different levels of sin for each one. 

During the late Middle Ages, Gothic cathedrals were common in Western Europe, especially in France. They were built with geometric coherence and an abundance of windows so natural light could be used. Large stained glass windows were also added to churches at this time. Many of the most famous Catholic cathedrals were constructed during this time, such as Notre-Dame Cathedral in France, Salisbury Cathedral in England, and Cologne Cathedral in Germany. 

Before the 10th Century, many Europeans lived in rural areas on farms or worked as serfs. In the late Middle Ages people started building homes around fortifications and congregating in villages. Previously, towns were controlled by the lord of the castle, but eventually they became independent. In order to escape from serfdom, there was a great migration from rural areas to towns and cities during this period since serfdom was not allowed in the cities. However, the taxes were higher. Moreover, civilians in the towns had the right to vote for town officials and the towns had guilds which regulated prices on goods. Some European countries even lifted restrictions on internal and international trade during the late Middle Ages, which helped the economy of these nations rise. England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire often traded with each other when they weren’t at war.

 The Hanseatic League was a merchant alliance which originated from the guild of merchants and cooperated against pirates, tax collectors, and debtors. By the 14th century, 52 towns and cities joined the Hanseatic League. The league waged economic war against offending cities and cleared the North Sea of pirates. Eventually, the league became oppressive by forcing cities to join with threats of violence, imposing unfair regulations, and even hiring pirates. 

After water mills were built across Europe, there was a boom in the textile industry during the 13th century. After the “private enterprise” became more common, the European economy thrived during the late Middle Ages, in fact, the use of private businesses was one of the factors that helped shape the modern world. Political decentralization also made owning your own enterprise easier. At this time, Western Europe was one civilization (Christendom) but numerous political units. Later, political competition, along with the influence of the Church, led to the end of the oppressive rule of kings.

As towns grew in Western Europe serfdom decreased. By the 16th century, serfdom was very rare, unlike in Eastern Europe, which remained largely rural and had large amounts of serfs well into the 19th century. Overall, the late Middle Ages was a period of recovery from the Dark Ages and the fall of the Roman Empire.